Eukaryotic cell: Structure and organelles

Plasma (cell) membrane

Cytoplasm

The semi-solid medium that keeps the organelles suspended and nutrients dissolved within the internal cellular environment is the cytoplasm. In addition to the organelles, the cytoplasm also contains microfilaments, microtubules and secretory granules. The microfilaments and microtubules are a part of the cellular architecture that helps give the cell its structure (cytoskeleton) and play a role in cell replication. They also contribute to the formation of cilia and flagella in some cell lines that require motility.

Ribosomes

In order for cells to grow and replicate, they must produce the necessary building blocks to achieve this feat. Additionally, some cells – like the β-cells of the pancreas – produce protein based hormones to help maintain homeostasis. This process is achieved by ribosomes. Ribosomes are complex ribonucleic acid based molecules (i.e. ribosomal-ribonucleic acid; r-RNA) that are responsible for translating coded sequences of the messenger-RNA (m-RNA) to proteins. They are made up of a small and a large subunit which coordinate with each other to translate the m-RNA strand. Some ribosomes are membrane bound, while others float freely in the cytoplasm. While free ribosomes synthesize proteins that are used within the cell, the proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes are meant to be exported.

Endoplasmic reticulum

There are clusters of sacs and vesicles that form cisternae (tubules) within the cytoplasm. These structures make the endoplasmic reticulum. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: one that has ribosomes bound to its surface - rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), while the other lacks ribosomes - smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

Another distinguishing feature between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum is that rough endoplasmic reticulum is an extension of the nuclear membrane, while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum may either be an independent collection of sacs, or a continuation of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. As previously stated, the rough endoplasmic reticulum stores protein that was synthesized by the ribosomes on its surface. In contrast, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes phospholipids, steroids, and lipids, which are subsequently used in steroid based hormone synthesis.

Golgi apparatus

Named after the Italian scientist that discovered it in 1898, Camillo Golgi, this organelle exists within the cytoplasm as a storage center for proteins that will be distributed to other sites. The Golgi apparatus (also referred to as the Golgi complex or Golgi body) is structurally subdivided into cis and trans components. The former represents flattened incoming vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum that fuse to form cisternae. The trans aspect of the structure is the region from which vesicles bud off to join other vesicles, lysosome or the cell surface (to be exocytosed).

Vesicles and lysosomes

Some proteins synthesised within the cell are utilized by the cell, while others are intended for export to other areas of the body. To prevent these products from being activated and interacting unintentionally with the cell of origin, they are stored in membrane bound sacs called vesicles. There are three general types of vesicles; exocytotic, lysosomal and secretory vesicles. The exocytotic vesicles contain proteins that will be expelled from the cell via exocytosis. This occurs when the vesicles fuse with the cytoplasmic membrane and expel its contents into the extracellular space. For example,  the release of antibodies from activated B-cells during the humoral immune response.

Proteins housed in secretory vesicles are also for extracellular release but require a stimulus; the release of a neurotransmitter named acetylcholine (ACh) from the telodendria of neurons into the synaptic cleft following stimulation by an action potential.

On the other hand, proteases are enzymes designed to digest protein. These are special proteins that are involved in cellular degradation in an apoptotic (programmed cell death) fashion or as part of the defence mechanism against invading pathogens. In either case, these enzymes are stored in the lysosomes for subsequent release. When there is an organelle, cell or microorganism to be digested, a vesicle forms around the substance to be dissolved and subsequently fuses with the lysosome. This is done to prevent unintended damage to other cytoplasmic structures.

Mitochondria

Often referred to as the “powerhouse” of the cell, the mitochondria (s. mitochondrion) is an elongated, double membrane structure with numerous cristae within its inner membrane. In addition to the membrane bound ATP synthase proteins that facilitate ATP production, mitochondria are the only organelles that contain their own DNA material and is therefore capable of replication.

The outer membrane that envelops the entire organelle is equipped with prion proteins that allow the selective uptake size of some substances. The inner membrane also has specific proteins such as ATP synthase (makes ATP), cytochrome C (performs oxidation-reduction reactions) and transport proteins (for selective uptake of material into the mitochondrial matrix). The constituents of the intermembrane space (between the inner and outer membranes) are very similar to those in the cytoplasm of the cell.

The matrix is the site at which the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle - process in ATP formation) occurs. The number of mitochondria found within a particular cell is dependent on its function. For example, cardiac myocytes contain more mitochondria than epithelial cells of the skin because they require more ATP to make them resistant to fatigue.

Nucleus

This is the largest structure within the cell. It is circumscribed by the nuclear envelope and contains a nucleolus, matrix, and most importantly, the hereditary genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). There is approximately two meters of microscopic genetic material within each cell. This immense volume of DNA is able to be held within the cell by tightly coiling it around histones (proteinaceous scaffold) that are subsequently stacked as chromosomes. However, DNA only exists as chromosomes during the active stages of cellular division. When the cell is in the growth phase, the DNA takes the form of either euchromatin or heterochromatin. DNA that takes the euchromatic form is usually more frequently transcribed and expressed by the cell.

Within the nucleus is a unique region known as the nucleolus. This is an area where DNA that codes for ribosomal RNA (or tandem repeats) is found. The primary function is to make and assimilate r-RNA that will be exported to the cytoplasm to translate m-RNA.

Nuclear envelope

There is another selectively permeable membrane that separates the nucleus cellular cytoplasm from the nuclear matrix. This structure is known as the nuclear envelope; like the plasma membrane, it is also made of a lipid bilayer. It is a double layered structure that encircles the nucleolus and the chromatin within the nuclear matrix. The nuclear envelope is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

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In some areas of the envelope the inner and outer layers merge, forming openings known as nuclear pores. Not only do nuclear pores allow nucleotides and other materials to enter the nucleus, but they also allow m-RNA to leave the nucleus for translation in the cytoplasm.

Differences between animal and plant cells

For completion, it should be noted that animal cells are not the only eukaryotic type of cell that exists. Plant cells are also eukaryotic and have components that are similar to those in animal cells. However, there are some significant differences. While animal cells are more irregular in shape, plant cells are often of a fixed rectangular shape. This fixed form is facilitated by the rigid cellulose-based cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane of the plant cell; which is also absent in animal cells.

In addition to having mitochondria to produce ATP, plant cells also contain chloroplasts. These structures allow plants to utilize ultraviolet energy in the process of photosynthesis to produce their own food. Finally, while a wide variety of animal cells may be equipped with cilia, these structures are often missing from most types of plant cells.